Ediția de iarnă a revistei academice Romanian Journal of European Affairs prezintă cititorilor o selecție de subiecte de actualitate din domeniul afacerilor europene. În acest număr, cercetători din Europa Centrală și de Est abordează următoarele teme de mare interes: politica externă a Serbiei și orientarea către Uniunea Europeană și Federația Rusă; europenizarea, analizată din perspectiva alegerii raționale; statutul statelor mici, exemplificat prin cazul Lituaniei și al politicii UE față de Belarus; dinamica multidimensională a statelor baltice la douăzeci de ani de la aderarea la UE; securitatea cibernetică în Republica Moldova în contextul integrării europene; materializarea obiectivelor UE privind energia regenerabilă, raportată la un studiu de caz din România; precum și rolul ambasadorilor Pactului climatic european. Totodată, ediția din luna decembrie a anului 2024 se încheie cu o recenzie a lucrării „Social Europe: From vision to vigour” (autor: Björn Hacker), oferind cititorilor ocazia perfectă de a se familiariza cu politicile sociale ale Uniunii Europene.
Serbia through the Lens of Small States’ Foreign Policy. Balancing between the European Union and the Russian Federation
Jan Graf, Martin Solik
Abstract
The small states’ foreign policy has long been a neglected topic in academic circles because the very definition of “small state” was discussed only after World War II. However, in the accelerated dynamics of global security, foreign policy of small states is gradually gaining importance. This study aims to clarify Serbia’s foreign policy orientation in the context of the security developments related to the Russian aggression in Ukraine, which has forced many states to reassess their security policy. Using a case study approach, the authors seek to highlight if Serbia’s foreign policy is built on the general premises of the small states’ foreign policy, and how its specific features enable Serbia’s balancing act. For this purpose, three characteristics of the small states’ foreign policy have been selected: military neutrality, efforts to join international organisations, and the commitment to fully respect international law. Based on expert interviews and the analysis carried out, the authors conclude that Serbia contradicts two theoretical assumptions about the foreign policy of these states, a fact that paradoxically helps Belgrade maintain close relations with both Brussels and Moscow. However, due to the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, an easier path to the EU opens for Belgrade, and this type of foreign policy could therefore come to an end.
Keywords: Serbia, European integration, Russia, foreign policy, small states.
State-captured Europeanisation. A Rational Choice Alternative
Radu-Vladimir Răuță
Abstract
What is missing in our understanding of the stagnation and/or regression in the Europeanisation of the Western Balkan candidate countries? The current paper aims to present a conceptual novelty, coined as ‘state-captured Europeanisation’, which is based on rational choice institutionalism (RCI). The proposed alternative concept traces its origins to the literature on state capture and the episodes observed in the Western Balkan (WB) countries through state capture assessment diagnostics (SCAD). Designed as an article, this paper offers an in-depth literature review of the main concepts surrounding Europeanisation and state capture. It examines corruption from the perspective of the literature on rational choice institutionalism. In this theoretically inclined research paper, the references to the Western Balkans reveal a resistance to Europeanisation. In fact, Europeanisation in the WB countries can be, and has been, hijacked or manipulated by vested interests within the state apparatuses, resulting in what we have termed as ‘state-captured Europeanisation’. State capture can be described as an evolutionary institutionalisation of corruption relations. Adapting the conceptualisation that explains how Europeanisation is seized by an illegitimate monopoly on the governance and economy of the countries on track to EU accession, the paper builds on the literature that explored the rationale behind the institutionalisation of corruption to advance an additional view about the effects of state capture on Europeanisation. The methodological framework used is that of rational choice institutionalism, focused on unveiling the causes of stabilitocracy, stagnation, and regression in Europeanisation. To contrive arguments and identify the episodes of state-captured Europeanisation, the article uses SCAD, bringing into the spotlight several instances in which political elites, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups have acted as driving forces for mimicking Europeanisation (with examples from Serbia between 2007 and 2018).
Keywords: Europeanisation, Western Balkans, state capture, rational choice institutionalism, SCAD.
Status Seeking by Small States: The Case of Lithuania and the EU’s Policy on Belarus
Beāte Livdanska, Karlis Bukovskis
Abstract
Using the example of the Republic of Lithuania and of its engagement towards Belarus, this paper seeks to explain how small states may elevate their status in the European Union by influencing the common foreign policy. Thus, it addresses Lithuania’s specific interests and the rationale behind its desire to consolidate its status among EU’s partners in the context of the violent post-election crackdowns on the opposition in neighbouring Belarus. Moreover, this paper seeks to examine the theoretical conceptualisations of status seeking and, to this end, it uses empirical evidence from the specific Lithuanian-Belarusian case. The article concludes that by its strong diplomatic and political outcry against Belarus, accompanied by the hosting of the Belarusian opposition’s leadership, Lithuania not only demonstrated that it is a pro-democratic country, but also flexed its foreign policy muscles on the international stage. The motivation behind its foreign policy was a positive change for Lithuania among the EU Member States and a revamp of the country’s image to free it from the post-Soviet “stamp”. The heartening feedback from its partners in the EU and NATO has cemented Lithuania’s resolve to be a trustworthy and capable partner that does not shy away from taking the initiative and from assuming responsibilities in the European Union’s foreign policy.
Keywords: Small states, status seeking, European Union, Lithuania, Belarus.
The Baltic States Twenty Years after the EU’s “Big Bang” Enlargement: Political, Economic, and Social Transformations
Aleksandra Palkova
Abstract
The article offers a unique and comprehensive reflection on the 20-year membership of the Baltic states — Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania — in the European Union (EU), highlighting the multifaceted impacts of their integration across the political, economic, and societal spheres. The novelty of this paper lies in its holistic approach to the Baltic states’ evolution from new EU members to proactive leaders. Politically, the Baltic states have transitioned from passive participants to influential actors, particularly in response to regional security challenges, such as the Russian threat. Economically, their adoption of the euro and integration into the Schengen Area have bolstered their stability and growth within the EU’s single market. Societally, EU membership has reinforced democratic values and human rights, marking a clear departure from Soviet-era influences. This focus on the small states as proactive agents in shaping EU policy, rather than merely beneficiaries of EU membership, offers a fresh perspective on their contributions to the EU’s development over the past two decades. The article brings valuable insights into the broader discourse on EU enlargement and the future trajectory of the European project.
Keywords: Baltic states, EU integration, “Big Bang” enlargement, EU accession, small states, case study.
Cybersecurity in the Republic of Moldova in the Context of European Integration
Ana-Maria Costea, Natalia Putină, Mircea Brie
Abstract
The current technological development has brought new opportunities, by reducing the time and transactional costs for several services. Thus, it has increased efficiency in various domains. Yet, at the same time, it has generated new threats and risks that countries need to face in the cyberspace. The unique character of this domain resides in the heterogeneity and multitude of the actors involved. This explains why there are unlimited possibilities for attacks, countless reasons for the attacks to happen, and endless strategies, which make a defence-based strategy futile, if not included within a larger resilience-based perspective. The conception of the state as the sole provider of services for the society no longer stands, as civil society and private actors gradually assume more responsibilities and competences, especially when dealing with the cybersecurity literacy of citizens. This aspect is key since we cannot truly discuss the resilience of a state – and tackle, ipso facto, its security – without taking into consideration the security of its citizens. In order to be protected against cyber threats, citizens need to identify them and find ways to address them. Thus, an adequate knowledge level is fundamental. The present article analyses the way in which the Republic of Moldova, an EU candidate state, is adhering to European norms and values regarding cyber resilience to cope with its cybersecurity threats. Firstly, we examine how its National Cybersecurity Strategy observes the European framework in terms of the state’s and civil society’s involvement in ensuring the security of the Republic of Moldova and of its citizens through awareness raising activities. Since one of the strategy’s objectives is the cooperation with the civil society to increase the citizens’ awareness of cyber threats, this research used a questionnaire designed to assess the Moldovan students’ current level of knowledge of the cyber landscape and of the relevant European norms in this field. The questionnaire also aims to analyse if and how the Moldovan citizens benefited from the different measures taken by the state, the civil society, or other private actors to address this issue.
Keywords: Awareness, civil society, cybersecurity, the EU, Moldova, resilience.
EU’s Renewable Energy Targets. An Economic Analysis of Floating Photovoltaic Plants on Inland Waters in Romania
Ioan-Cătălin Murărașu, Gabriela Drăgan, Boglarka Vajda
Abstract
The European Union’s (EU) imperative for its Member States to achieve climate neutrality has elevated the role of photovoltaic (PV) parks in the renewable energy landscape. However, the proliferation of photovoltaic (PV) plants presents sustainability challenges, notably in terms of land requirements for installation. This puts a strain on the allocation of the available land, leading to competition with vital economic sectors like agriculture and industry. In response to that challenge, this article proposes an analysis of the viability of the installation of photovoltaic (PV) panels on floating platforms on Romanian lakes. Employing a comprehensive methodology, this study evaluates key metrics including capital expenditure (CapEX), operational expenditure (OpEX), and the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). By examining the profitability and broader implications of floating photovoltaic (PV) installations, this research aims to contribute to the discourse on sustainable energy solutions amidst land scarcity. It underscores the potential of leveraging water surfaces to meet the EU’s renewable energy targets, while alleviating pressure on land resources, and informing policymakers and industry stakeholders on the feasibility and benefits of adopting innovative approaches to green and clean energy generation.
Keywords: Renewable energy, floating photovoltaic installations, land scarcity, Romania.
JEL classification: O13, P18, P48, Q42.
European Climate Pact Ambassadors as New Organic Intellectuals: Neo-Gramscian Analysis of EU Climate Hegemony and Just Transition
Mihail Caradaică
Abstract
Using a neo-Gramscian theoretical framework, this paper assumes that European Climate Pact Ambassadors (CPAs) play an essential role in the European green transition, thus contributing to defining new climate hegemony within the EU. The research question answered by the present paper is whether these climate ambassadors can be understood as “organic intellectuals” (in the sense forwarded by Antonio Gramsci) for their participation in the construction of a counter-hegemonic discourse and their determination to challenge the traditional modes of a fossil fuel-based economy. As such, these ambassadors will be ideally placed to develop a new narrative for climate action based on the just transition to the ambitious objectives of the European Green Deal. From this perspective, the article contributes to the broader debate on climate governance by sharply underlining the necessity of grassroots involvement and the possibility offered through a neo-Gramscian analysis to understand the dynamics of climate hegemony in the EU.
Keywords: Climate change, Climate Pact Ambassadors, just transition, neo-Gramscianism, organic intellectuals.
Book review – Social Europe: From vision to vigour, Björn Hacker, Brussels, 2023, Publisher: Foundation for European Progressive Studies, ISBN: 978-3-8012-3105-7
Klára Fóti
Abstract
This book, authored by Björn Hacker, was published by the Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS), within its Primer Series, in November 2023. It came out well ahead of the European Parliamentary elections – with the obvious purpose of contributing to public debates before the election campaigns. Therefore, its publication was well-timed. Its explicit aim, however, is actually more ambitious: to offer “guidance for those who would like to understand better how social policy at the EU level is made, what are the main tools, who are the most important actors, and when this policy field has been more or less successful in recent decades”.
Keywords: Social Europe, economic integration, social dialogue, policy coordination.